שמות, פרק כ׳, פסוק י״ג

The second half of the Ten Commandments shifts focus to interpersonal obligations, laying out the most severe prohibitions against harming another person. Unlike the first five Commandments, which focus on honoring God and include details of reward and punishment, these directives are absolute, concise, and offer no promised reward. Their necessity for the survival and stability of human society is entirely obvious and natural [רמב״ן, טור הארוך].

A primary approach among commentators points to a direct conceptual parallel between the two halves of the tablets [כלי יקר, טור הארוך, אברבנאל]. The prohibition against murder mirrors the declaration of God's existence, as taking a life destroys a human being created in God's image. The ban on adultery corresponds to the prohibition of idolatry, viewing idol worship as a form of spiritual infidelity. The injunction against theft aligns with the warning against taking God's name in vain, because a thief will inevitably swear falsely to conceal the crime. Finally, the prohibition of false testimony parallels the Commandment to keep the Sabbath, as violating the Sabbath is akin to testifying falsely that God did not rest on the seventh day. Furthermore, these interpersonal laws follow a logical sequence of decreasing severity. They begin with the ultimate physical destruction of a person, move to the violation of marriage, proceed to the loss of property and freedom, and conclude with harm caused by speech [אבן עזרא, רמב״ן, מלבי״ם].

Regarding the taking of life, there is a clear distinction between general killing, which might describe justified acts like court-ordered executions or accidental deaths, and the specific action prohibited here, which strictly denotes unlawful, malicious murder [רשב״ם, בכור שור, ביאור יש״ר, רש״ר הירש]. This prohibition extends well beyond direct physical violence. It encompasses indirect harm, such as failing to save a life when possible, offering malicious advice that leads to death, or publicly shaming someone and destroying their livelihood, which is equated to shedding their blood [אבן עזרא, אברבנאל].

The primary approach among commentators is that the prohibition against adultery refers specifically and severely to relations with a married woman [רש״י, ספורנו, רא״ש, ביאור יש״ר]. However, others expand this to include all forbidden sexual relationships, immoral thoughts, and even assisting or inciting others to sin [אבן עזרא, רבנו בחיי, אברבנאל, תורה תמימה]. The immediate juxtaposition of adultery with murder serves a specific conceptual purpose. A person might assume that since reducing the population through murder is forbidden, increasing life through any means, including forbidden relationships, might be acceptable. The text immediately clarifies that this, too, is absolutely forbidden [בכור שור, חזקוני].

Because the preceding crimes of murder and adultery carry the death penalty in a court of law, commentators deduce from the context that the prohibition against theft here also refers to a capital offense. Therefore, it specifically addresses kidnapping, or the stealing of a human being, while the theft of money and property is prohibited elsewhere in the Torah [רש״י, רבנו בחיי, רא״ש, תורה תמימה]. Nevertheless, many commentators view this as an all-inclusive ban on every form of theft, ranging from stealing money to cheating with false weights and measures, and extending to deception and emotional manipulation [אבן עזרא, ספורנו, מלבי״ם, אברבנאל].

Finally, the prohibition against false testimony is formulated to forbid the very act of becoming a false witness, rather than just the delivery of a false statement. This means the ban applies to the core identity of the liar, such as conspiring witnesses who were never even present at the event, or those who organize and incite others to testify falsely [אבן עזרא, שד״ל, רש״ר הירש, רבנו בחיי]. By framing the victim as a neighbor rather than a brother, the law establishes that the prohibition against false testimony protects every single human being, including non-Jews [רבנו בחיי, קאסוטו, צאינה וראינה]. Beyond the formal legal setting of a courtroom, this encompasses any speech that harms another person, including gossip, slander, and mockery [ספורנו, מלבי״ם, אברבנאל].