במדבר, פרק כ״ד, פסוק כ״ד

Balaam’s final prophetic vision presents a sweeping, cyclical view of human history. Great empires rise, conquer their predecessors, and eventually collapse under their own weight. Woven through this grand historical stage is the story of the Israelites' exile, as they endure subjugation under one kingdom after another until their ultimate redemption.

The narrative foresees the arrival of powerful invading forces. The primary approach among commentators envisions these forces as massive naval fleets and large warships. Conversely, other interpretations describe them as cruel individuals who resemble desert beasts [רלב״ג, הטור הארוך], or as moving military legions cheering loudly as they march [נתינה לגר, תורה תמימה]. These forces are said to emerge from the power or territory of a nation known as Kittim [אבן עזרא, רש״ר הירש].

The exact identity of this conquering power is subject to discussion. One approach identifies them as the ancient Greeks [אבן עזרא, רלב״ג], while others locate them geographically in Mediterranean islands such as Cyprus or Italy [שד״ל, נתינה לגר, רש״ר הירש]. Nevertheless, the vast majority of commentators agree that this points to the Roman Empire, which originated in those Mediterranean regions and became notorious for its ruthless and predatory conquests. Upon their arrival, these military or naval forces will invade and crush the mighty Assyrian empire. In a broader sense, the name Assyria may also serve as a general representation for any highly successful and prosperous nation that eventually falls to a new world power [העמק דבר].

Alongside the defeat of Assyria, the invading empire will also oppress a group identified as Eber. Commentators offer two complementary explanations for this group. Some suggest it refers broadly to all the nations residing beyond the Euphrates River [בכור שור, ביאור שטיינזלץ, הדר זקנים]. Many others, however, emphasize that this refers specifically to the Hebrews, the Israelites. Having already been exiled and taken captive, the Israelites will find themselves subjected to continued hardship and enslavement under the rule of this new empire [רש״י, רבנו בחיי, הטור הארוך, העמק דבר].

Ultimately, the prophecy seals the fate of the oppressing superpower itself. Most commentators connect this inevitable downfall to the biblical visions of Daniel, explaining that the Roman Empire, which once dominated the world and destroyed the Second Temple, is destined to be completely eradicated at the end of days during the messianic era [רש״י, רבנו בחיי, הטור הארוך, מלבי״ם, אדרת אליהו]. Although a minority view suggests this final destruction refers to the ultimate fall of Assyria rather than Rome [רלב״ג], the central message remains unified and clear. Worldly dominance is never eternal, and any nation that builds its power by subjugating others will eventually meet its own demise.